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t_Articles
t_Articles
December 2003
Download PDF version (An
Overview or Full Document)
This series of short briefings
on best practice for the prevention of food-borne illness and emerging risk
factors is intended to contribute to the continued growth in awareness and
demand for safe, nutritious food “from farm to plate”.
Each topic briefing has been
designed so that it may be read separately or in conjunction with others for an
overall synopsis on current best practice. Further briefs on more specialised
food safety topics are planned for future release.
Sections
1-7 of the information pack is divided into the following sections:
An
Overview
The
Farm - Beginning of the Food Chain
Food
Processing – Preventing Food-borne Illness and Improving Quality
Transport
and Storage - Safeguarding Food
Food
Safety and Retailing
Food
Safety in the Home
Glossary
An Overview
“Food-borne illnesses” are defined by WHO, as
diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that
enter the body through the ingestion of food. Every consumer is at risk of
food-borne illness but conversely every incidence of food-borne illness is
potentially preventable. There is much everyone in the food chain from
production at farm level to the final presentation and consumption of food
stuffs, from plate, bowl, or packet can do, to prevent food-borne illness. The
first step in prevention of food-borne illness is to be well-informed about the
basics of food safety: the hazards and risks; how to recognise, and/or eliminate
them through the use of best food safety practises.
Food-borne illness maybe caused by physical,
chemical or biological food hazards. Of these, three types of food safety
hazard, microbiological contamination is by far the most common cause of
food-borne illness. In spite of the advances in food variety, convenience and
safety, the World Health Organisation (WHO) says cases of disease caused by
microbiologically-contaminated food are on the increase both in developed and
developing countries. For this reason the AFIC series of documents on Best
Practises in Food Safety, focus mainly, although not exclusively, on prevention
of food-borne illness caused by micro-organisms such as moulds, bacteria and
viruses.
Food-borne illness severely impacts health,
particularly society’s most vulnerable groups (for example, the elderly,
pregnant women, those with diminished immunity and the very young). Food–borne
illness also markedly reduces economic productivity. Whilst chemical and
physical contaminants of food can pose serious risk to health and safety of
consumers, experts agree that the most common cause of food-borne diseases is
microbiological contamination.
Many public and private sector agencies are
investing huge amounts of effort and resources in the prevention of food-borne
illness. Improving the knowledge of all those involved in all stages of the food
supply chain is absolutely fundamental to the success of these initiatives.
Safety of food can only be assured if all those involved from the farm right
through to those consuming the food understand and play their part. Food safety
is truly everybody’s business, and everybody’s responsibility.
Food-Borne Illness and Social Change
More choices exist now than ever before and
increased choice brings with it greater
complexity - for example
-
Increased variety demands increased knowledge
about how to store, prepare and eat imported fruit, vegetables, meat, seafood
and dairy products; how to select and prepare food for people who are
particularly susceptible to food-borne illnesses or who suffer food allergies
and intolerances such as intolerance to lactose in dairy products, or allergy
to peanuts.
-
Consumers place increased emphasis on
convenience and speed in preparing meals but, convenience foods need to be
correctly stored and prepared in the home.
-
The use of a greater variety of cooking methods
such as micro-waving, barbecuing and slow cooking enhance food variety, but
knowledge is required to ensure these methods are used correctly, and without
undermining health and safety of the end-consumer.
-
Many traditional "food wisdom’s" historically
passed down from one generation to the next are being forgotten or becoming
obsolete, but some sectors of the general population have been unable to
replace that traditional knowledge with modern scientific understanding of
food safety and nutrition.
As more meals are consumed from street vendors,
in restaurants, and other public places it can be difficult for individual
consumers to determine if food in public places is safe to eat
Rapid population increases, particularly in the
urban environment further aggravates this problem. Up to 50% of the urban
population living in the major cities of Asia live in conditions of extreme
poverty, overcrowding and poor sanitation. In addition, changing social
structures have resulted in a heavier emphasis on the purchase and consumption
of food outside the family home. Without strict control of food preparation,
storage and display practices, food-borne illness will continue to grow.
Prevention of Food-Borne Illness - An Achievable
Goal.
Food-borne illness is almost always preventable.
The key is better knowledge and understanding, throughout the whole food supply
chain from farm to the consumer’s plate.
To protect the food safety of citizens and ensure
that the needs of the export markets and consumers overseas are met, governments
all over the world are intensifying their efforts to improve food safety. The
food industry also continues to review and improve practises and procedure
designed to eliminate hazards and risks in the food supply chain.
Consumers also have a vital role to play.
Consumer vigilance and knowledge not only creates demand for better, more
consistent food hygiene and safety standards, but also ensure that safe food
purchased remains safe to eat, and potentially unsafe food is recognised and
rejected.
Food Safety – A Shared Responsibility.
A large proportion of food consumed nowadays
passes through some or all elements of the food supply chain. Each link in the
chain has a role to play, indeed a responsibility, in ensuring that our food
remains wholesome and safe to eat.
Food safety and prevention of food-borne illness
is everybody’s responsibility.
Scientific and technological understanding on food safety has
never been greater. Examples and models of best practise which eliminate or
massively reduce the risk of food-borne illness exist for all stages of the food
supply chain.
Safer Food – Everybody’s Responsibility:
Many revolutionary and beneficial changes have
occurred in the food industry in recent years, but although consumers are
increasingly aware of the connection between food and health, the greatest risk
to human health from food is the lack of knowledge about major food-related
health risks and avoiding the risks.
All along the food chain, procedures and good
practices are being implemented to ensure that the food which reaches the
consumer's table is fit for consumption and the risks of contamination are
minimised, so that the population as a whole is healthier from the benefits of
safe quality food. But responsibility for food safety should not only be the
priority of professionals in the food industry, the consumer is equally
responsible in order to ensure the safety of food in the home and when eating
out.
Ultimately, everyone benefits from being better
informed about food safety.
Back to Top
The Farm, the Beginning of the
Food Chain
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Most food products such as
rice, corn, fruit, vegetables, sugar, meat, milk, etc are either produced
directly on farms or based on produce derived from agriculture. Farming uses
natural resources, such as solar energy, soil and water to produce food for
human and animal consumption.
Over the past fifty years,
all governments in Asia have pursued higher yields and increased food production
as their major policy goal. With the population of Asia forecast to grow from
3.8 to 4.6 billion during the next 2 decades, this goal will remain high
priority. However, greater awareness of environmental issues, shifts in consumer
demand, and the introductions of new technologies has shifted consumer
expectations, and in turn, the expectations of other stakeholders in the food
chain, such as governments, producers, manufacturers, processors and retailers
from quantity, to both quality and quantity.
Good farming, handling and
storage practices are the main determinants of the quality of raw farm products.
Quality of food refers to properties, such as nutritional value, functional
properties such as suitability for processing, standards of cleanliness and
hygiene, organoleptic (i.e. taste, smell and mouth feel) properties.
Urbanisation together with
higher incomes are major driving forces behind demand for quality crops. Town
and city dwellers usually look for greater diversity of foods and increased
quantities of foods such as fruit, vegetables and animal proteins, than their
rural fellow citizens. The quality of produce also determines its success in the
export market.
The removal of trade
barriers, increasing consumer demand and competition provide strong incentives
for farmers to provide top quality farm produce.
Pesticides and Food Safety
Pesticides are an essential
tool for most farmers. It is estimated that without pesticides at least 50% of
global harvests could be lost.
Most problems with
pesticides result from misuse. For example, usage instructions include
recommended rest period between treatment and harvest. These rest periods are
based on extensive trials, and are intended to ensure residual traces of
chemical treatments are either zero or below the levels set as safe for human
consumption.
Education of farmers on the
proper use of pesticides, establishing maximum permitted pesticide residue
levels and regular testing of crops for presence of pesticides residues all
provide positive incentives for farmers to follow manufacturer recommendations.
In September 1995, for example, the Ministry of Health in China established
maximum residue standards for 27 types of pesticide.
Korea,
Taiwan and Japan have national monitoring systems based on chemical analysis.
The level of samples detected with residue contamination in Korea and Taiwan was
1-2% in 1999, and in Japan in 1996 was only 0.03%. These levels are in
compliance with international standards.
Integrated pest management (IPM)
also offers the potential to reduce overall pesticide use and to encourage the
use of modern pesticides which are designed to break down more quickly. IPM is
the combined use of chemical, cultural, and biological methods for acceptable,
economic pest control with minimum effect on non-target weeds and insects as
well as the natural environment.
In Indonesia, for example,
farmers who have adopted IPM practices are reported to have been able to reduce
pesticide use substantially.
Although IPM can be quite
challenging to implement and requires coordinated action by a large number of
farmers, the success of IPM programs in Indonesia and elsewhere in the region
are encouraging other countries to progress IPM policies.
Organic Produce
An organic production system
avoids the use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, growth regulators and
livestock feed additives. There is little evidence however, that organically
produced food is any safer or more nutritious than it’s conventionally produced
counterpart.
Biological Pest Control
The use of natural enemies
(predators and parasites) is widely accepted, as is the use of insect pheromones
and entomopathogenic microbes and fungi, both in traditional and organic
agricultural practice.
Also, most recently
biotechnology has been used to develop crops which produce their own natural
anti-insect protection.
Naturally Occurring Food
Safety Risks
There are many naturally
occurring harmful toxins in foods we eat, which in normal circumstances do not
cause illness either because the amount consumed ordinarily is too small, or
because the produce is treated, for example by soaking and washing before
consumption to neutralise the naturally occurring toxins. Examples include
cyanogens (found in cassava, mango and other fruit kernels) that can be fatal if
consumed in large quantities; and goitrogens (in cabbage, broccoli, mustard
greens and radish) which act as thyroid antagonists.
Animal Diseases and the
Consumer
Animals may also carry
micro-organisms which can cause disease in humans without any evidence of their
existence during the animal’s life cycle or even after its slaughter. It is not
possible to eliminate all pathogens from the current production systems, but
producers can do a great deal to minimise the risk through systematic and
scrupulous adherence to recommended food hygiene practices and the observance of
strict hygienic practices on the farm.
Monitoring and surveillance,
along with early intervention in the event of a food safety risk becoming
apparent is also essential. For example, in May 1997, a rare influenza virus,
previously found only in birds and poultry, crossed the species barrier,
infecting some residents of Hong Kong with ‘chicken flu’ – which in some
instances resulted in death. (Please note, that infection of humans was caused,
not by consumption of the meat, but by direct contact with live chickens -
nevertheless, the health authorities response provides a good example of how
effective rapid and concerted response can be). Millions of chickens were
destroyed by December 1997. Since then, chicken imports from China have resumed,
but birds are inspected and subjected to blood tests prior to import, and tested
for avian influenza upon arrival in Hong Kong. A much strengthened monitoring
and surveillance system has been established in the wet markets, and a rapid
response system to early signs of infection has been developed and implemented
on a number of occasions.
BSE (Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy) or ‘Mad Cow Disease” was first recognised in cattle in 1986.
Most BSE cases in cattle have been found in Britain, with other European
countries also reporting cases. A small number of cases of cattle infected with
BSE have also been confirmed in Japan since the latter half of 2001.
It is thought, although not
fully confirmed, that BSE-contaminated meat and bone meal (MBM) is the cause of
the fatal disease, nvCJD (new variant Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease) in humans, which
was first recognised in 1996. This has resulted in the implementation of more
stringent measures to contain the disease and to exclude animal spinal and
neural tissues from human consumption. Presently, scientific evidence seems to
indicate that preventive measures can control the animal disease and minimise
the risk of possible human illness. Import bans on British and European meats
are gradually being lifted.
The key to success in
handling animal disease epidemics is early detection. If a disease can be
detected very early in the phase of epidemic development, the possibility exists
that it can be arrested and eliminated before it actually inflicts damage. Early
detection pre-supposes that there is a surveillance system in place that will
bring infection to light when it is first seen. The country’s veterinary
authorities are then placed in the position of being able to manage the problem
before it becomes uncontrollable, thus protecting the local livestock industry
and ensuring food security for those closely dependent upon livestock.
Other concerns with
livestock health include the use of antibiotics and hormones in livestock feed:
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are used in the
rearing of livestock to prevent infection, as well as enhancing growth. If the
recommended period between final dose and slaughter of animals is not observed,
residual traces of the antibiotic may remain in the flesh and ultimately be
consumed by humans. There is a recognised risk that regular use of antibiotics
in animals, particularly those also used to treat humans may result in the
development of antibiotic-resistant strains of microbes, causing disease in
humans which is difficult to treat.
The European Commission
recently imposed a temporary ban on the import of some Chinese and Thai products
of animal origin, viz., rabbit, meat, poultry, pet food, honey, and crustaceans,
including shrimp and prawns due to concerns over the detection of
chloramphenicol, an antibiotic which is not recommended for use in animal feed.
As a result Thai and Chinese authorities are reviewing agricultural operating
and inspection procedures.
The concerns over antibiotic
use, has led to the convening of a number of expert committees to assess the
role of antibiotics in livestock. Expert panels’ opinion, such as that led by
Professor Phillip, of Guys and St Thomas’s hospital in the UK conclude that
currently - responsible, controlled use of antibiotics is a necessary tool in
ensuring food safety in meat production.
Traceability
Traceability systems are
record keeping systems that systematically record information about a particular
attribute of a food product from creation through marketing. Traceability
systems are primarily intended to help keep foods with different attributes
separate from one another. However, traceability can help facilitate trace-back
for food safety and quality too. A traceability report proves useful when public
health officials attempt to identify the source of a food-borne illness
outbreak. In the case of some type of food-borne illnesses, for example, such as
those caused by E.coli 0157:H7, no cure is known, therefore identifying and
removing the source of illness is the only means of preventing the spread of
disease. The faster the disease-causing bacteria can be detected, the faster
investigators can respond to outbreaks.
The Japanese Agriculture
Ministry is developing a traceability system to label each pack of beef, to show
where the animal was born and the farms where it was raised. The new numerical
system is designed to assure the elimination of BSE from national cattle herds,
and restore public confidence in beef and national monitoring and surveillance
system following the recent BSE scares.
Back to Top
Food Processing, Preventing Food-borne Illness
and Improving
Quality
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version
The fundamental
purpose of food processing remains unchanged - to make food available
and safe when and where it is needed. With rapid and continuing
lifestyle changes such as more women working outside the home, the
continuing shift of people from rural to urban environments, demand for
food processed to extend shelf-life, variety, nutritional value, or
convenience, continues to grow.
Almost all the foods
that we eat are processed in some form. Food processing is an
international industry, bringing increased food choices to the consumer,
and major export opportunities to Asia.
Typical methods of
food processing
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Heating:
Pasteurisation involves heating to temperatures of at least the
equivalent of at least 72° C for 15 seconds to kill most food-borne
pathogens and then quickly cooling to a maximum temperature of 5° C.
However, food is not totally sterilised; refrigeration is required and
shelf life is limited.
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Sterilisation
involves heating to temperatures of at least 120° C or more for a
prescribed period of time to kill microbes and or inactivate spoilage
enzymes; followed by rapid cooling. Sterilisation significantly
increases shelf life and eliminates the need for refrigeration as long
as the package remains unopened.
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Cooling:
Refrigeration and freezing maintain food at controlled, low
temperatures to keep enzymes inactive and inhibit the growth of
microbes. To remain effective, cooling and freezing must be maintained
consistently through transport, retail sale and storage at home.
Cooling and freezing is not therefore a reliable method of food
preservation in significantly under-developed and rural areas of Asia,
where a constant power supply cannot be guaranteed. Total temperature
control is critical because many foods spoil rapidly and irreversibly.
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Drying:
This is one of the most traditional methods of preserving foods, and
is still widely used in Asia. Drying produces stable foods by reducing
their water content, which, in turn, denies microbes the environment
needed for reproduction. Food products where this technique is used
are fish and seafood, meat, dates, beans, noodles, rice and cereals
and powdered milks. The addition of salt and sugar to foodstuffs also
controls microbial food poisoning by effectively making water present
in the foodstuff unavailable for microbial growth. For this reason,
high sugar foods are usually relatively safe to eat.
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Smoking:
These methods both dry the food and add extra flavour eg meat, fish
and seafood, and edible insects.
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Fermentation:
Fermentation is the process by which microbes produce alcohol or acid,
which act as preserving agents. Fermentation of foods has a long
tradition in Asia -tofu, tempeh, idlis, kimchi, fish sauce, oyster
sauce, beer, wine, and some dairy products such as yoghurt are typical
examples.
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Food additives:
Food additives also play a key role in food processing. For example,
some additives make food acidic and thereby protect it against
spoilage; anti-oxidants prevent fats and oils from becoming rancid;
emulsifiers and stabilisers help produce stable mixtures of
ingredients which would otherwise separate, for example oil and water.
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Atmosphere
Special atmospheric conditions are used less frequently than
temperature control for food preservation, but in certain cases,
atmosphere control has a major impact on the quality of products in
storage and transport. The best example is fruit that is packed and
preserved in special nitrogen-rich atmospheres for six months or more.
This is achieved by sucking out ambient oxygen-rich air from the
storage facility and replacing it with “reconstituted” air which is
low in oxygen and high in both nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
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Irradiation
Food Irradiation involves treating foods with ionizing energy or
radiation. Radiation processing of food strengthens food conservation,
improves food hygiene and helps food exports overcome quarantine
barriers. It facilitates packing, storage, transport and distribution
of foods by extending shelf-life of food products (by killing
spoilage-causing micro-organisms). Irradiation also destroys insect
pests in stored products and fruits, and parasitic organisms such as
tapeworms which are a particular risk to those consumers (in Japan and
China for example), who consume fish, shellfish and meat raw or
part-cooked. The World Health Organisation and the Codex Alimentarius
Commission have both approved irradiation as a safe and effective
method of food preservation, and over 42 countries in the world
including developing countries like Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, and
Thailand have given clearance for radiation processing of food.
Benefits of food
processing
Preservation:
Preserving the taste, smell, look and feel of food and preventing
spoilage is an important function of food processing. Preservation
inactivates natural processes in food which cause its deterioration.
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Enzyme action -
all food contains natural enzymes that break down proteins, fats and
carbohydrates. Once an animal has been killed or a plant harvested,
these enzymes, if left uncontrolled, continue to work, break down the
food and cause spoilage.
-
Microbial action -
all food can be attacked by bacteria and fungi that cause food to rot
or become mouldy. If permitted to multiply, these microbes can cause
spoilage.
-
Oxidation - many
food components can be attacked by oxygen in the air, making them
rancid or resulting in an unpleasant taste. This too can be
controlled, for example through canning, vacuum packing and with the
use of antioxidant additives such as vitamin C and beta-carotene.
Nutrition:
Processing techniques may preserve, enhance or destroy natural
nutrients: For example, high temperatures required for sterilization
may destroy some of the heat sensitive vitamin C in canned fruit, but
cooking and processing of some foods, such as carrots and spinach,
actually increases the bioavailability of the carotenoids (which the
body converts into vitamin A) they contain.
Processing makes
some food and availability stuffs more digestible, thus increasing both
their appeal of important nutrients. The simple process of cooking for
example increases digestibility and absorption rates of starch, an
important complex carbohydrate.
The increased
variety and choice in a consumers’ diet facilitated by processed foods,
further enhances the nutritional quality. As a general rule, the more
varied the diet, the more nutritionally balanced it is likely to be.
Convenience:
With urbanisation, changing roles of women and more women working
outside of the home, providing food products that are convenient and can
be easily prepared at home, is an increasingly important function of
processed food products. Products include ready prepared ingredients and
sauces for curry and stir-fry dishes; chopped or frozen vegetable, meat
& fish; instant noodle soups; chilled ready to cook spring rolls and
chapatis; and also complete meals for almost instant serving from
freezer via microwave or conventional oven, to table.
Variety:
As a result of modern food processing, today’s consumer has unparalleled
choice: teas from Assam, coffee from Columbia, fish from the North
Atlantic, imported canned fruit from the US and so on.
Consumption of a
wide variety of food also reduces the cumulative risk of some specific
food-borne chemicals. For example, mycotoxins (produced by certain fungi
in/on foods and feeds) have been associated with a range of disorders
from gastroenteritis to cancer in populations whose diet have little
variety and are heavily reliant on food crops susceptible to infection
by these toxin-producing fungi.
Affordability:
The food processing industry plays a major role in ensuring that varied
and nutritious products available today are affordable to an
increasingly larger proportion of the population.
Ensuring Quality and
Safety in Processing
Food processors rely
on modern quality management systems to ensure the quality and safety of
the products they produce.
Key systems in use
are:
-
Quality
Assurance Standards. Adherence to standards such as the
International Standards Organisation ISO 9000, Codex Alimentarius and
standards set by national government food and drug regulatory
authorities, helps ensure that food processing, catering and other
food-related industries conform to prescribed, documented procedures,
which are regularly assessed by independent experts.
-
Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP). The Codex Alimentarius Commission
developed a Code of GMP in 1997 to help all sector of the food
industry in the food hygiene implementation. GMP provides food
manufacturing and catering establishments with the means to assure a
basic standard of food safety. Food industry and public health
authorities however, recognise that GMP alone is not sufficient
safeguard against food-borne health risks.
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Good Hygiene
Practice (GHP). The use of appropriate cleaning and sanitising
techniques, including the use of approved and effective cleaning
chemicals, use of protective clothing and strict observation of
personal hygiene by personnel and provision of the necessary
facilities for this purpose, as well as time-temperature controls, are
fundamental principles of GHP.
-
Hazard Analysis
Critical Control Points (HACCP). The concept and practice of HACCP
provides a greater standard of food safety protection than GMP or GHP.
HACCP is a proactive technique used in the food industry, which
focuses on preventing defects in the production process itself, by
identifying them in advance of a problem occurring.
In preparation for
World Trade Organization (WTO) entry and to meet its own market
development needs, a number of strategies have been mapped out by the
food industry in different parts of Asia. In Thailand for example, many
food companies are implementing inspection, monitoring and verification
procedures to strengthen their HACCP schemes, quality assurance and
laboratory inspection systems with a view to ensuring compliance to
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) Guidelines.
China too is
stepping up efforts to establish a set of technical standards for food
products. Both imported food and food items produced on the mainland for
sale in the domestic market will be required to strictly comply with
food quality assurance systems, including food safety assurance tools,
such as GMP and HACCP. Unification of food standards and quality
certification systems such as ISO 9000 will be promoted and implemented.
Before and after
processing
The quality of food
products is dependent on the quality of raw materials and on the quality
of transport, storage and sale to the consumer. Increasingly therefore,
quality management systems of food processors (e.g. ISO 9000 systems)
also involve working with the suppliers (individual farmers and raw
material wholesalers), transporters, product wholesalers and retailers
to ensure quality assurance procedures at each level.
On a regular basis,
processors brief suppliers on the specific requirements for raw
materials and provide technical assistance to help ensure that raw
material production meets specifications. In addition, quality audits
and inspections of raw materials at the point of delivery help ensure
that specifications are met. Processors also provide technical
assistance to, and conduct audits of, transporters, wholesalers and
retailers to ensure that specifications for temperature, moisture and
other conditions are met and that sell-by dates are observed.
Protecting Food
through Packaging
Food packaging is an
important part of food preservation and safety. It ensures that food
reaches the consumer in peak condition. Food grade packaging materials
such as cans, bottles, vacuum-wrapped plastic do this by:
-
Maximising shelf
life by acting as a barrier against water vapour, air, and microbes.
Packaging may also retain moisture and gases, which preserve product
freshness and safety.
-
Carrying
information on the label (use-by dates, ingredients, refrigeration or
cooking instructions, recipes suggestions etc) to help the consumer
store and use products safely at home.
-
Providing evidence
that the product is intact and has not been tampered with.
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Preventing loss of
aroma and protecting against odours from external sources.
-
Including bar
codes for identifying the date and location of manufacture which
enables processors, transporters and retailers to keep track of
products for both inventory control and identification of potential
hazards.
Loyalty Based on
Trust
The success of each
food processing company is dependent on the loyalty of the consumer to
each individual brand and product. In turn, loyalty relies on the
consumer’s trust in the quality and safety of products. Hence, food
companies have a strong incentive to provide safe, good quality food to
consumers.
The principle of
shared responsibility is fundamental both in the processing and in the
preparation of food to ensuring that food is both nutritious and free of
the contaminants that cause food-borne diseases.
Back to Top
Transport and Storage : Safeguarding Food
Download PDF
version
Transport and
storage form vital links in the food chain between the farmer’s field
and the consumer’s table. While the role of the farmer, the food
processor and the retailer in the food chain is easily understood, it is
easy to forget the importance of well-managed transport and storage, in
ensuring that food stuffs are protected from hazards such as
contamination, spoilage and deterioration.
Maintaining the
quality and safety of food in transport and storage requires both
operating procedures to ensure the preservation of food products, and
monitoring procedures to ensure operations are carried out as intended.
Monitoring
Procedures
Identity documents
have become increasingly essential elements in monitoring transport and
storage procedures in Asia. They may be used to trace a food product’s
history from the farmer’s field or barn right through to the consumer’s
plate.
To ensure
“traceability” of food products, participants in the food chain are
increasingly committing themselves to documenting each step in the
process. The history of a product contains a great number of important
details: the land on which the product was raised, the lots of seed and
fertiliser used, the record of pesticide treatments where appropriate,
dates of harvesting, location of storage silos, the particular herd or
flock from which an animal came, the date and location of slaughter,
location and date of processing and packaging, the identity of
ingredients used in processing, the condition of transport vehicles, the
dates, duration and conditions of transport, storage locations, dates by
which the product should be used and why, and the name and location of
the final retail store.
The methodical
recording of this data is in part due to the increased awareness of its
importance by the participants in the food chain and also to the use of
modern information technology to process the relevant information.
The Japanese
agriculture ministry is developing a traceability system to label each
pack of beef, to show where the animal was born and the farms where it
was raised. The new numerical system is designed to restore public
confidence in beef following recent public alarm over a small number of
confirmed cases of Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis (BSE) in cattle.
Further, national codes of practice have also been established for the
handling, storage, transport and sale of red meat, poultry, fish and
crustacea; safety of food in national and international trade; and food
service hygiene in travel catering.
Temperature
A wide variety of
fresh products (vegetables, fish, meat, poultry, and prepared meals)
must be kept at low temperatures throughout processing, transport,
storage and final sale. Likewise, it is imperative to keep frozen foods
at temperatures that prevent thawing to point of sale, and from retail
premises to the home. Similarly, food heated in advance must be kept hot
between locations, for example between a central institutional kitchen
and aeroplane where the food will be offered to passengers. Transport
and storage containers along the route therefore, must be insulated,
temperature controls working properly and an alert system needs to be in
place to warn when errors occur.
In China for
example, the demand among consumers and restaurants for frozen and
chilled foods has resulted in the need to move perishable food products
quickly, efficiently and hygienically from the farm or food processor to
the consumer. China’s cold chain infrastructure is currently striving to
modernise and invest to meet the ever-growing demand.
Humidity
Air that is too dry
or too damp damages many fresh foods: Excessive dryness can dehydrate
meats as well as some fruits and vegetables. High humidity, which is
common in many parts of SE Asia, can lead to the growth of moulds and
bacteria on meat, and fungus on fruit, vegetables and cereals.
Controlling humidity is often achieved by management of the airflow
circulating around products in trucks, shipping containers and storage
areas. In turn, airflow is dependent on the type of containers in which
food is packed, for example - net bags for certain kinds of vegetables,
or slatted cartons for fruits etc. Airflow is also dependent on the way
these containers are packed together, e.g., with relatively little
airflow among them or with spacers between cartons specifically designed
to enhance airflow.
Handling Conditions
Workers handling
food products throughout transport and storage play a critical role in
food quality and safety. They are responsible for ensuring that products
and packaging are not physically bruised, broken or bent, that
conditions are free of dust, odours, rodents and insect pests. For
example, food transported in a truck previously used to transport fish
and not thoroughly cleaned, could absorb fish odours. For this reason,
training of personnel at each step in the process is important. Many
countries provide personnel training courses. For example, in Japan,
prefectural governments provide food sanitation training courses for
food handlers. In addition, a food sanitation week is observed annually.
Packaging
Packaging is very
important in preventing both recontamination of processed foods, and the
introduction of new hazards into foodstuffs in transit or storage.
Whether in metal, glass, paper or plastic, hygienic packaging plays an
important role, both as a physical barrier against physical, biological
and chemical contaminants, and in preventing the growth of undesirable
organisms: for example by acting as a physical barrier in hot humid
environments, and thus preventing the growth of moulds.
Maintaining Quality
Standards
Because of the
importance of maintaining high standards in transport, an increasing
number of agreements exist between organisations representing the food
industry, transporters and even those specifically responsible for
cleaning trucks and containers. In addition, there are at least two
international bodies responsible for implementing quality standards in
the transport and storage of food in the Asia Pacific region.
·
The
norms of the International Standards Organisation (ISO) contain a
chapter on the storage and delivery of food products.
·
The
Codex Alimentarius established in 1962 by the World Health Organisation
and the Food and Agriculture Organisation, includes the issues of
transport and storage in the overall recommendations for the
preservation of food.
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Food Safety and Retailing
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version
All participants in
the food chain are anxious to ensure the quality and safety of the food
they produce and sell. Their reputations depend on it and ultimately
their reputation or ‘brand image’ are the most valuable assets they
have.
Hence, most modern
food producers and retailers encourage consumers to provide feedback on
possible defects in their products. Increasingly, the largest of these
companies are also establishing dedicated telephone care lines and mail
systems to listen to consumer concerns and views and to answer questions
relating to the safety and quality of food products.
Rapid feedback from
consumers enables problems to be remedied immediately and could assist
in the elimination of potentially serious threats to safety.
Possible Food Safety
Hazards at Point of Purchase and What Consumers
Can Do About It
h
The look, feel and
smell of fresh produce is often a good measure of its quality and
safety.
h
Damaged or distorted
packaging, e.g. bulging pots, dented cans, may be a warning that a
product may be spoiled or, at the least, that its shelf life may have
been reduced. It should be reported to the retailer, and the products
returned for replacement or refund.
h
“Best before” and
“use-by” dates should be taken seriously; out-of-date products should
not be purchased and should be reported to store managers.
h
If packaged food is
found to have gone “off” before the “best before” date on the package,
the product should be returned or reported to the retailer or food
processor.
h
Adulteration of food
involves using inferior, cheaper ingredients to cheat consumers and
undercut competition. Many laws exist in different countries to ban the
sale of food that has been adulterated or found unsafe for human
consumption. Hence, the sale of misbranded, mislabelled, and
contaminated food should be reported to relevant authorities. Reporting
incidents can help authorities challenge errant retailers and reduce the
recurrence of these incidents.
Eating Outside the
Home: Identifying Risks can Eliminate Food-borne Disease
Consumers should pay
special attention to the preparation of meals outside the home – street
vendors, restaurants, hospitals, nursing homes, child care
establishments, schools, canteens, aeroplanes, wedding parties, business
conventions, etc. Considering the vast number of meals consumed in such
public settings, professional chefs and caterers do an outstanding job
of protecting the public against food-borne disease. However, while the
incidence of problems in public places is very low, when something does
go wrong, it tends to attract wide public attention and usually affects
a large number of people. Such incidents are commonly investigated by an
official inquiry; in contrast, individual incidents of disease in the
home are rarely reported at all.
h
If food in a
restaurant or other public place smells, looks or tastes odd, it should
be returned.
h
Particular care
needs to be taken about food prepared in large quantities, in advance or
under difficult conditions - at symposia, meetings, large social events,
outdoor events, etc.
There are many
technological initiatives which can raise food safety standards of
caterers. Examples include improvements in water storage and dispensing
equipment, more efficient pest control measure and waste disposal
arrangements, innovative designing of food stalls, push carts, etc.
Efforts are being
made to inform and educate professional food-handlers as well as the
consumer about how to avoid food-borne illnesses. Strict industrial
hygiene procedures such as Hazard and Critical Control Point Procedure (HACCP)
(see Food Processing section), used to ensure safety in food processing
plants have also been adopted.
Some special
procedures that should be followed in public settings are:
h
Where a large number
of meals are prepared in advance and/or far from the point of eventual
consumption - schools or hospitals or nursing homes or on trains and
aeroplanes - facilities for maintaining hot food hot, and cold food cold
must be in place, to prevent the rapid growth of bacteria in the foods.
h
When large groups of
people are served meals prepared in facilities that are not designed for
such quantities, catering personnel should be particularly careful to
avoid contamination, by scrupulously following good hygiene practices,
and paying particular attention to foods such as salads, which are
intended to be eaten raw.
h
At public events
where food should look attractive as well as taste good, food service
professionals face additional challenges. Raw decorations (parsley,
shrimps, etc.) pose a risk, and the decorative arranging of food can
result in food being handled more than is usual to acquire the desired
effect. As a consequence, undesirable micro-organisms may enter an
otherwise safe food dish.
h
A consumer who
suffers from food allergies should be particularly cautious in public
places, even avoiding certain foods unless assured that there is no risk
of contamination.
h
Lastly, while the
food processing industry produces a relatively limited number of
products using relatively standardised methods, food service
establishments change recipes daily and often prepare several different
dishes at the same time and in the same facility. Under these
circumstances, professional food-handlers should take extra precautions
to avoid cross-contamination between raw materials or between raw food
and finished products.
Street Food
The World Health
Organization (WHO) defines street foods as foods and beverages prepared
and/or sold by vendors in streets and other public places for immediate
consumption or at a later time without further processing or
preparation. With a large proportion of urban dwellers relying heavily
on street foods to obtain meals on a daily basis, the street food trade
in many cities in Asia, has grown considerably.
Many urban residents
obtain a significant portion of their diet from street foods, since
prepared meals and snacks are sold cheaply on the street. Street foods
are especially useful for the poor, who lack time and facilities to
cook, but office workers and other sectors of society also rely on them.
Heavy reliance on street food consumption, the perishable nature of the
products being vended, and several direct associations of street food
with food-borne outbreaks and epidemics, make adequate control of street
food trade imperative for protecting public health.
The challenges to
ensure that safe food is offered for sale include - large number of
mobile vendors, limited education of many vendors, poor knowledge about
good practices in food hygiene and the crude conditions under which
vendors operate.
Interventions by
WHO, Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and many national educational institutions and public
health authorities have targeted food hygiene issues of street foods.
Many authorities have developed a Code of Hygiene Practice specifically
for street vended foods as the basis for education and training, as well
as control and monitoring. Such intervention and training in food
hygiene initiatives have led to some improvement in food handling
practices. Interventions have also focused on advice on regulation of
the street food sector, training on methods of inspection of street
foods, raising awareness among senior municipal officials and
development and dissemination of ‘appropriate technologies’ for use in
the street food sector. However, there is general recognition that such
initiatives need to be sustained and continuously monitored to ensure
and expand their effectiveness.
The consumer must
employ special care when purchasing food from street vendors. Following
is a checklist of precautions to consider when consuming food from
street traders.
h
only eating cooked
food while it is still hot.
h
refusing food which
has been left standing for a long time.
h
avoiding food which
should be cold, but which is in fact lukewarm.
h
avoiding food that
looks or smells odd.
h
looking for
recognised certificates of good hygiene in public places.
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Food Safety in the Home
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Consumers have a
central role to play in ensuring their own health and safety. Consumers
can do a great deal to safeguard their own and their family’s health by
following certain basic precautions, sometimes described collectively as
“good hygienic practices”
According to the
World Health Organisation (WHO), among the most important causes of
food-borne illness are errors in food handling and preparation at home,
restaurants and other eating-places. WHO emphasises that “outbreaks of
food-borne diseases can be reduced if both professional and domestic
food-handlers understand the importance of correct hygienic food
practices. Health education is one of the most effective means of
reducing the problem”.
Health statistics
clearly indicate that microbial contamination is the greatest risk to
food safety. Public opinion surveys indicate that the consumer is
increasingly aware of the danger of microbial contamination as the most
important threat to food safety, but the continuing rise in reports of
food-borne illness suggest that many people still have little
understanding of how to prevent it.
Food Safety Hazards
Data indicates that
a few factors are responsible for a large proportion of food-borne
disease episodes. Common errors include:
l
Maintaining food in
the danger zone: Food-borne pathogens grow best in temperatures ranging
from 5ฐ
C to 60ฐ
C. This is
called the temperature danger zone. Preparation of food long before
consumption; leaving prepared food at a temperature that permits
bacterial proliferation for too long; or inadequate heating is likely to
place food in the danger zone.
l
Cross-contamination
between cooked and raw food: Bacteria from raw food can contaminate
ready-to-eat or contaminated food if the latter is not stored or handled
properly. In the refrigerator, ready to eat food and raw food should be
properly separated to prevent liquid dripping from raw food to the
cooked food. All food should be stored in clean non-toxic washable
containers and covered properly.
l
Contamination
through handling: During food preparation, hands, utensils and equipment
such as cutting boards can become contaminated with bacteria from raw
food. If hands, utensils and equipment are then used to prepare
ready-to-eat or cooked food, without first being thoroughly washed, food
can become contaminated. As this food is not likely to be cooked again
before being consumed, the bacteria in it will not be destroyed.
Good Hygiene
Practices in the Home
Good hygienic
practices both in the home and outside have the potential to protect
everyone against microbial contamination and the food-borne diseases
caused by it. For example, fresh vegetables should always be washed to
reduce any possibility of contamination from external sources and
chicken and eggs should be adequately cooked to eliminate Salmonella.
“Good hygienic
practices” require a basic understanding of the sources of microbes
capable of contaminating food, the conditions under which these microbes
can multiply to dangerous levels, and how these can be eliminated.
Special
Considerations
Pregnant women,
babies, young children and the elderly have particular needs which
require special care in selecting, storing and preparing food. In
general, people with reduced natural defences should be vigilant about
protecting themselves against food-borne diseases. People taking certain
kinds of drugs including antibiotics and chemotherapy treatment are also
more susceptible to microbiological-caused food-borne illness.
Ten Food Safety Tips
for the Consumer
Below is a list of
10 essential tips for the consumer to protect against food-borne
illness, developed by AFIC.
Shopping -
l
“Best before” and
“use-by” dates should be taken seriously; out-of-date products should
not be purchased and should be reported to store managers. If packaged
food is found to have gone “off” before the “best before” date on the
package, or if damaged packaging is discovered at home, it should be
returned or reported to the retailer or food processor.
l
Adulteration of food
involves using inferior, cheaper ingredients to cheat consumers and
undercut competition. The sale of misbranded, mislabelled,
and contaminated food should be reported to relevant authorities.
Reporting incidents can help authorities identify and punish errant
retailers and reduce the recurrence of these incidents.
When choosing where
to buy food, make a visual check that staff, cutlery and other equipment
looks clean and tidy. This is a good indicator of hygiene standards,
including those “behind-the-scenes”.
Storage -
l
Separate raw foods,
especially meat, fish and seafood from cooked food in the refrigerator.
Store foods wrapped or properly covered.
l
Do not put very hot
food in the refrigerator, as this will cause the refrigerator
temperature to rise.
l
lStore cans, packets
and bottles in a cool dry place, and protected from insect and rodent
pests.
Food Preparation and
Eating
l
Remember to always
wash hands before preparing food or eating.
l
Equipment used to
prepare raw foods must be washed thoroughly after use and always before
being used to prepare foods which are already cooked, or are to be
consumed raw.
l
Hot food should be
very hot, and cold food should be chilled. Avoid any foods left at room
temperature for more than 2 hours. Particular care needs to be taken
about food prepared in large quantities, in advance or under difficult
conditions - at symposia, meetings, large social events, outdoor events,
etc.
l
If you have any
doubts about raw foods, such as fruit and vegetables, the golden rule is
“boil it, cook it, peel it, or forget it.”
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Glossary of
Terms
Download PDF version
(Adapted
from ICD/WHO/SEAMEO/GTZ Manual: Food Safety for Nutritionists and Other Health
Professionals)
Additives and
ingredients Substances added to foods to influence their condition or to
bring about specific characteristics or effects (help manufacture, preserve,
improve palatability, eye appeal, convenience - e.g. emulsifiers, flavours,
thickeners, curing agents, humectants, colours, vitamins, minerals, moulds,
yeasts, and bacterial inhibitors).
Allergy A reaction provoked by antigen
contact with antibodies. Symptoms include widening of capillaries (reddening of
skin or mucous membranes), increase in permeability (local swelling) and
secretion (tears, sputum, rhinitis), itching.
Ambient
temperature Surrounding temperature; usually refers to room
temperature.
Antibiotics Secondary metabolites of
microorganism which, in small quantities, can inhibit or lethally harm another
microorganism.
Bacteria A diverse group of single-celled
organisms that are neither plants nor animals. Some bacteria are useful; others
are harmful.
Botulism Neuromuscular intoxication caused
by Clostridium botulinum toxin. When the vegetative cells grow in a food they
produce a potent exotoxin which causes botulism when ingested. It is the most
dangerous type of food poisoning and is usually caused by under-processed
contaminated canned or vacuum-packed foods.
Codex
Alimentarius Commission (Codex) The Commission was jointly established by FAO
and WHO to develop food standards guidelines and related texts such as code of
practice. Its main purposes are the protection of consumer health, ensuring fair
trade practices in the food trade and providing co-ordination of all food
standards developed by international, governmental and non-governmental
organisations.
Critical
Control Point (CCP) A step at which control can be applied and is essential to
prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
(Codex)
Contaminant Any biological or chemical agent,
foreign matter or other substances not intentionally added to food that may
compromise food safety and suitability. (Codex)
Contamination The introduction or occurrence of a
contaminant in food or food environment. (Codex)
Cross
Contamination A contamination occurring during the production,
processing or preparation of food, either through direct contact of
uncontaminated materials with contaminated materials or through transmission by
a vehicle.
Danger
zone The temperature range most conducive to the
multiplication of bacteria (5oC to 60oC).
Decontamination Sanitation, disinfection. Drastic reduction
of the microbial population.
Deep
freezing A method to extend the shelf life or keeping
quality of a food product by storing it at temperatures below -18oC until it is
delivered to the consumer.
Dehydration Loss of water.
Diarrhoea Refers
to passing a fluid stools with a high frequency. This is the most typical
symptom associated with foodborne infection.
Disinfection The reduction, by means of chemical
agents and/or physical methods, of the number of microorganisms in the
environment, to a level that does not compromise food safety or suitability.
(Codex)
Endemic: A disease that prevails or recurs
frequently in a locality or population.
Epidemic An outbreak of an infectious disease
that affects many people at one time in the same area.
Extrinsic
factors Factors external to a food that may be applied
(e.g. by the processor) for extending the shelf life or keeping quality of a
food (e.g. temperature, preservatives, storage).
Fermentation
A desirable process of biochemical modification of primary food
products
brought about by microorganisms and their enzymes.
Food
handler Any person who handles packaged or unpackaged
food, food equipment and utensils or surfaces in contact with food and is
therefore expected to comply with food hygiene requirements. (Codex)
Food
hygiene All conditions and measures necessary to
ensure the safety and suitability of food at all stages of the food chain.
(Codex)
Foodborne
disease A disease, usually either infectious or toxic in nature,
caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. The term
“food” includes drinking-water. Sometimes this is incorrectly referred to as
food poisoning.
Food
poisoning This is a term that is often used to refer to
foodborne illness/disease but WHO does not recommend it.
Food
safety Assurance that food will not cause harm to
the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use.
(Codex)
Food
spoilage Food becomes unfit to eat as a result of:
growth and activities of microorganisms, insect infestation, action of enzymes,
chemical reactions, and physical changes (e.g. freezing, burning, drying,
pressure, and humidity).
Food
toxin Compounds naturally present in food that
are toxic or carcinogenic or have pharmacological effects. This includes natural
carcinogens and nutritional inhibitors.
Fungus See Mould.
Gastro-enteritis Also known as gut infection.
Inflammatory change of the lining of stomach and intestine usually caused by
microorganisms ingested with the food or water.
Gut
microbes Microorganisms that live in the
gastrointestinal tract of man or animals.
HACCP
“Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point”. A system that identifies,
evaluates, and controls hazards that are significant for food safety. (Codex)
Hazard A biological, chemical or physical
agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to cause an adverse health
effect. (Codex)
Heat
sterilisation Commonly practised method for the destruction
(killing) of all viable microorganisms.
Heavy
metals Metals with a specific gravity of >5, such as
iron, lead, copper, zinc, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, cadmium, silver, as well
as semi-metals such as arsenic.
High-risk
food These include foods that have been linked
epidemiologically to foodborne disease or that, due to their nature, preparation
or storage, present a greater risk of foodborne disease than other foods.
International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) A global network of national standards
institutions, working in partnership with international organisations,
governments, industry, business and consumer representatives to establish
internationally recognised quality and good practice standards such as ISO
9000.
Immunity Part of the defence system of man and
animal against infections.
Incubation
period The time interval between exposure to a pathogen or
toxin and the appearance of the first clinical symptoms (e.g. 7-21 days for
enteric fever). It differs considerably between foodborne infections and
intoxication.
Indicator
organism A microorganism used to check the effectiveness of GHP.
Infection Entry and colonisation of an
infectious microorganism in a living macroorganism (host). Disease does not
always develop but the host becomes a “carrier”.
Irradiation Treatment with ionising radiation
to render food safe or increase its shelf-life.
Metabolism Biochemical process in all living
cells. Uptake of nutrients and assimilation in the cell.
Metabolite: An intermediate or end product of
microbial metabolism partially excreted in food, with a desired or undesired
effect e.g. organic acids, Carbon Dioxide and other gases, ethanol, antibiotics,
mycotoxins, flavour and other substances influencing the taste.
Microorganisms (microbes) Simple living creatures comprising viruses, bacteria,
algae, protozoa and fungi (fungi include yeast and moulds).
Monitoring (HACCP) The
act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of control
parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control. (Codex)
Mould Refers to any fungus that normally
forms a mat of branched elongated cells. Several moulds are useful in the
preparation of food (e.g. cheese and Tempe) but many cause spoilage. Some moulds
produce harmful mycotoxins.
Mycotoxins
Toxins produced by fungi during growth. The most widely studied mycotoxins are
the aflatoxins produced by the moulds Aspergillus flavus and
parasiticus.
Nutrition The combination of processes by
which a living organism receives and uses the material necessary to maintain its
function, to grow, and to renew its components.
Ochratoxins
A group of mycotoxins produced by Aspergilli and Penicillia growing on
foodstuffs. Ochratoxin A is the best known.
Packaging A container or wrapping designed to
protect food commodities from mechanical and climatic influences, and to act as
a barrier to pests and microorganisms.
Pasteurisation Heating a food to temperatures at least
the equivalent of 72oC for 15 seconds. Pasteurisation destroys most toxins and
vegetative cells of microorganisms causing food poisoning. Most bacterial spores
survive pasteurisation.
Pathogenic Pertaining to the ability to produce
disease.
Pathogens Any disease-causing microorganism or
material (bacteria, yeast, fungi, and viruses) that may affect other living
organisms, to the detriment of their health.
Pesticides All compounds used in plant
protection against pests.
pH
value Measure of the “acidity” or
“alkalinity” of a water-containing product.
Preservation Various methods to extend the shelf
life of food (e.g. dehydration, heat sterilisation, freezing, radiation,
addition of preservatives) by inhibiting the multiplication and/or growth of
microorganisms and by minimising chemical and sensory changes.
Preservatives Antimicrobial substances that prevent
multiplication of microorganisms and sometimes also used for preventing other
types of undesirable activities.
Risk A function of the probability of
an adverse health effect and the severity of that effect, consequential to (a)
hazard(s) in food. .
Spore “Bacterial spores”. Extremely
resistant survival forms produced by bacteria (genera Bacillus, Clostridium)
under conditions of nutrient limitation.
Sterilisation
In the context of food processing, a method of preservation by killing all
microorganisms associated with a foodstuff usually by applying heat, for example
in bottling and canning. (WHO)
Toxic Poisonous.
Vector Also known as a vehicle. Method
of transport for microorganisms to hosts or habitats (e.g. wind, water, insects,
rodents, pets, man, utensils).
Verification The application of methods,
procedures, tests and other evaluations, in addition to monitoring to determine
compliance with the HACCP plan. (Codex)
Viral
gastro-enteritis Collective term for gastro-enteritis caused by
viruses, mostly transmitted to man by water, raw salads, and vegetables. The
following are described as pathogens: Rota viruses Group A and others, Norwalk
viruses and large “related” types, (27 - 32 nm), Adeno-, Astro- and
Caliciviruses.
Viral
hepatitis Also known as infectious jaundice. An acute
infection that is caused by the type A hepatitis virus. The virus is
transmitted from person to person by the faecal-oral route, such as on
contaminated food, water and utensils.
Virus Internal parasites of the cells
of many organisms; they are unable to grow outside of the living cells of their
host.
World Health
Organisation (WHO) The United Nations specialised agency intended to provide
leadership in attainment by all peoples of the highest possible levels of
health.
Zoonoses
Communicable diseases that can be transmitted to man by animals.
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AFIC, SEAMEO TropMed
Nutrition Institute and Industry Council for Development gratefully acknowledge
the input of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Asia
Pacific office in the production of this document.
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